diff --git a/dex2oat/dex2oat.cc b/dex2oat/dex2oat.cc
index 1180bde..c37c72b 100644
--- a/dex2oat/dex2oat.cc
+++ b/dex2oat/dex2oat.cc
@@ -517,7 +517,8 @@
       thread_count_(sysconf(_SC_NPROCESSORS_CONF)),
       start_ns_(NanoTime()),
       oat_fd_(-1),
-      vdex_fd_(-1),
+      input_vdex_fd_(-1),
+      output_vdex_fd_(-1),
       zip_fd_(-1),
       image_base_(0U),
       image_classes_zip_filename_(nullptr),
@@ -590,8 +591,13 @@
     ParseUintOption(option, "--zip-fd", &zip_fd_, Usage);
   }
 
-  void ParseVdexFd(const StringPiece& option) {
-    ParseUintOption(option, "--vdex-fd", &vdex_fd_, Usage);
+  void ParseInputVdexFd(const StringPiece& option) {
+    // Note that the input vdex fd might be -1.
+    ParseIntOption(option, "--input-vdex-fd", &input_vdex_fd_, Usage);
+  }
+
+  void ParseOutputVdexFd(const StringPiece& option) {
+    ParseUintOption(option, "--output-vdex-fd", &output_vdex_fd_, Usage);
   }
 
   void ParseOatFd(const StringPiece& option) {
@@ -707,9 +713,9 @@
       Usage("--oat-file should not be used with --oat-fd");
     }
 
-    if ((vdex_fd_ == -1) != (oat_fd_ == -1)) {
+    if ((output_vdex_fd_ == -1) != (oat_fd_ == -1)) {
       Usage("VDEX and OAT output must be specified either with one --oat-filename "
-            "or with --oat-fd and --vdex-fd file descriptors");
+            "or with --oat-fd and --output-vdex-fd file descriptors");
     }
 
     if (!parser_options->oat_symbols.empty() && oat_fd_ != -1) {
@@ -720,8 +726,8 @@
       Usage("--oat-symbols should not be used with --host");
     }
 
-    if (vdex_fd_ != -1 && !image_filenames_.empty()) {
-      Usage("--vdex-fd should not be used with --image");
+    if (output_vdex_fd_ != -1 && !image_filenames_.empty()) {
+      Usage("--output-vdex-fd should not be used with --image");
     }
 
     if (oat_fd_ != -1 && !image_filenames_.empty()) {
@@ -1114,8 +1120,10 @@
         ParseZipFd(option);
       } else if (option.starts_with("--zip-location=")) {
         zip_location_ = option.substr(strlen("--zip-location=")).data();
-      } else if (option.starts_with("--vdex-fd=")) {
-        ParseVdexFd(option);
+      } else if (option.starts_with("--input-vdex-fd=")) {
+        ParseInputVdexFd(option);
+      } else if (option.starts_with("--output-vdex-fd=")) {
+        ParseOutputVdexFd(option);
       } else if (option.starts_with("--oat-file=")) {
         oat_filenames_.push_back(option.substr(strlen("--oat-file=")).data());
       } else if (option.starts_with("--oat-symbols=")) {
@@ -1258,7 +1266,7 @@
         }
         oat_files_.push_back(std::move(oat_file));
 
-        DCHECK_EQ(vdex_fd_, -1);
+        DCHECK_EQ(output_vdex_fd_, -1);
         std::string vdex_filename = ReplaceFileExtension(oat_filename, "vdex");
         std::unique_ptr<File> vdex_file(OS::CreateEmptyFile(vdex_filename.c_str()));
         if (vdex_file.get() == nullptr) {
@@ -1284,9 +1292,9 @@
       }
       oat_files_.push_back(std::move(oat_file));
 
-      DCHECK_NE(vdex_fd_, -1);
+      DCHECK_NE(output_vdex_fd_, -1);
       std::string vdex_location = ReplaceFileExtension(oat_location_, "vdex");
-      std::unique_ptr<File> vdex_file(new File(vdex_fd_, vdex_location, /* check_usage */ true));
+      std::unique_ptr<File> vdex_file(new File(output_vdex_fd_, vdex_location, /* check_usage */ true));
       if (vdex_file.get() == nullptr) {
         PLOG(ERROR) << "Failed to create vdex file: " << vdex_location;
         return false;
@@ -2576,7 +2584,8 @@
   std::vector<const char*> oat_filenames_;
   std::vector<const char*> oat_unstripped_;
   int oat_fd_;
-  int vdex_fd_;
+  int input_vdex_fd_;
+  int output_vdex_fd_;
   std::vector<const char*> dex_filenames_;
   std::vector<const char*> dex_locations_;
   int zip_fd_;
diff --git a/runtime/oat_file_assistant.cc b/runtime/oat_file_assistant.cc
index ff00451..0679360 100644
--- a/runtime/oat_file_assistant.cc
+++ b/runtime/oat_file_assistant.cc
@@ -595,7 +595,7 @@
 
   std::vector<std::string> args;
   args.push_back("--dex-file=" + dex_location_);
-  args.push_back("--vdex-fd=" + std::to_string(vdex_file->Fd()));
+  args.push_back("--output-vdex-fd=" + std::to_string(vdex_file->Fd()));
   args.push_back("--oat-fd=" + std::to_string(oat_file->Fd()));
   args.push_back("--oat-location=" + oat_file_name);
 
diff --git a/runtime/utils.h b/runtime/utils.h
index 21df839..1e98057 100644
--- a/runtime/utils.h
+++ b/runtime/utils.h
@@ -279,24 +279,34 @@
 using UsageFn = void (*)(const char*, ...);
 
 template <typename T>
-static void ParseUintOption(const StringPiece& option,
+static void ParseIntOption(const StringPiece& option,
                             const std::string& option_name,
                             T* out,
-                            UsageFn Usage,
+                            UsageFn usage,
                             bool is_long_option = true) {
   std::string option_prefix = option_name + (is_long_option ? "=" : "");
   DCHECK(option.starts_with(option_prefix)) << option << " " << option_prefix;
   const char* value_string = option.substr(option_prefix.size()).data();
   int64_t parsed_integer_value = 0;
   if (!ParseInt(value_string, &parsed_integer_value)) {
-    Usage("Failed to parse %s '%s' as an integer", option_name.c_str(), value_string);
-  }
-  if (parsed_integer_value < 0) {
-    Usage("%s passed a negative value %d", option_name.c_str(), parsed_integer_value);
+    usage("Failed to parse %s '%s' as an integer", option_name.c_str(), value_string);
   }
   *out = dchecked_integral_cast<T>(parsed_integer_value);
 }
 
+template <typename T>
+static void ParseUintOption(const StringPiece& option,
+                            const std::string& option_name,
+                            T* out,
+                            UsageFn usage,
+                            bool is_long_option = true) {
+  ParseIntOption(option, option_name, out, usage, is_long_option);
+  if (*out < 0) {
+    usage("%s passed a negative value %d", option_name.c_str(), *out);
+    *out = 0;
+  }
+}
+
 void ParseDouble(const std::string& option,
                  char after_char,
                  double min,