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<h1><img src="../../boost.png" alt="boost.png (6897 bytes)" align="center" width="277" height="86">Header
<a href="../../boost/lexical_cast.hpp">boost/lexical_cast.hpp</a></h1>
<ul type="square">
<li>
<a href="#motivation">Motivation</a></li>
<li>
<a href="#examples">Examples</a></li>
<li>
<a href="#synopsis">Synopsis</a></li>
<li>
<a href="#lexical_cast"><code>lexical_cast</code></a></li>
<li>
<a href="#bad_lexical_cast"><code>bad_lexical_cast</code></a></li>
<li>
<a href="#faq">Frequently Asked Questions</a></li>
<li>
<a href="#references">References</a></li>
<li>
<a href="#changes">Changes</a></li>
<li>
<a href="#performance">Performance</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h2><a name="motivation">Motivation</a></h2>
Sometimes a value must be converted to a literal text form, such as an <code>int</code>
represented as a <code>string</code>, or vice-versa, when a <code>string</code>
is interpreted as an <code>int</code>. Such examples are common when converting
between data types internal to a program and representation external to a
program, such as windows and configuration files.
<p>
The standard C and C++ libraries offer a number of facilities for performing
such conversions. However, they vary with their ease of use, extensibility, and
safety.
<p>
For instance, there are a number of limitations with the family of standard C
functions typified by <code>atoi</code>:
<ul type="square">
<li>
Conversion is supported in one direction only: from text to internal data type.
Converting the other way using the C library requires either the inconvenience
and compromised safety of the <code>sprintf</code> function, or the loss of
portability associated with non-standard functions such as <code>itoa</code>.
</li>
<li>
The range of types supported is only a subset of the built-in numeric types,
namely <code>int</code>, <code>long</code>, and <code>double</code>.
</li>
<li>
The range of types cannot be extended in a uniform manner. For instance,
conversion from string representation to <code>complex</code> or <code>rational</code>.
</li>
</ul>
The standard C functions typified by <code>strtol</code> have the same basic
limitations, but offer finer control over the conversion process. However, for
the common case such control is often either not required or not used. The <code>scanf</code>
family of functions offer even greater control, but also lack safety and ease
of use.
<p>
The standard C++ library offers <code>stringstream</code> for the kind of
in-core formatting being discussed. It offers a great deal of control over the
formatting and conversion of I/O to and from arbitrary types through text.
However, for simple conversions direct use of <code>stringstream</code> can be
either clumsy (with the introduction of extra local variables and the loss of
infix-expression convenience) or obscure (where <code>stringstream</code>
objects are created as temporary objects in an expression). Facets provide a
comprehensive concept and facility for controlling textual representation, but
their perceived complexity and high entry level requires an extreme degree of
involvement for simple conversions, and excludes all but a few programmers.
<p>
The <code>lexical_cast</code> function template offers a convenient and
consistent form for supporting common conversions to and from arbitrary types
when they are represented as text. The simplification it offers is in
expression-level convenience for such conversions. For more involved
conversions, such as where precision or formatting need tighter control than is
offered by the default behavior of <code>lexical_cast</code>, the conventional <code>
stringstream</code> approach is recommended. Where the conversions are
numeric to numeric, <code><a href="../numeric/conversion/doc/html/boost_numericconversion/improved_numeric_cast__.html">numeric_cast</a></code>
may offer more reasonable behavior than <code>lexical_cast</code>.
<p>
For a good discussion of the options and issues involved in string-based
formatting, including comparison of <code>stringstream</code>, <code>lexical_cast</code>,
and others, see Herb Sutter's article, <a href="http://www.gotw.ca/publications/mill19.htm">
<i>The String Formatters of Manor Farm</i></a>. Also, take a look at the <a href="#performance">Performance</a> section.
<p>
<hr>
<h2><a name="examples">Examples</a></h2>
The following example treats command line arguments as a sequence of numeric
data: <blockquote>
<pre>int main(int argc, char * argv[])
{
using boost::lexical_cast;
using boost::bad_lexical_cast;
std::vector&lt;short&gt; args;
while(*++argv)
{
try
{
args.push_back(lexical_cast&lt;short&gt;(*argv));
}
catch(bad_lexical_cast &amp;)
{
args.push_back(0);
}
}
...
}
</pre>
</blockquote>The following example uses numeric data in a string expression: <blockquote>
<pre>void log_message(const std::string &amp;);
void log_errno(int yoko)
{
log_message(&quot;Error &quot; + boost::lexical_cast&lt;std::string&gt;(yoko) + &quot;: &quot; + strerror(yoko));
}
</pre>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<h2><a name="synopsis">Synopsis</a></h2>
Library features defined in <a href="../../boost/lexical_cast.hpp"><code>&quot;boost/lexical_cast.hpp&quot;</code></a>:
<blockquote>
<pre>namespace boost
{
class <a href="#bad_lexical_cast">bad_lexical_cast</a>;
template&lt;typename Target, typename Source&gt;
Target <a href="#lexical_cast">lexical_cast</a>(const Source&amp; arg);
}
</pre>
</blockquote>Unit test defined in <a href="lexical_cast_test.cpp"><code>&quot;lexical_cast_test.cpp&quot;</code></a>.
<p>
<hr>
<h2><a name="lexical_cast"><code>lexical_cast</code></a></h2>
<blockquote>
<pre>template&lt;typename Target, typename Source&gt;
Target lexical_cast(const Source&amp; arg);
</pre>
</blockquote>Returns the result of streaming <code>arg</code> into a
standard library string-based stream and then out as a <code>Target</code> object.
Where <code>Target</code> is either <code>std::string</code>
or <code>std::wstring</code>, stream extraction takes the whole content
of the string, including spaces, rather than relying on the default
<code>operator&gt;&gt;</code> behavior.
If the conversion is unsuccessful, a <a href="#bad_lexical_cast">
<code>bad_lexical_cast</code></a> exception is thrown.
<p>
The requirements on the argument and result types are:
<ul type="square">
<li>
<code>Source</code> is <i>OutputStreamable</i>, meaning that an <code>operator&lt;&lt;</code>
is defined that takes a <code>std::ostream</code> or <code>std::wostream</code> object on the
left hand side and an instance of the argument type on the right.
</li>
<li>
<code>Target</code> is <i>InputStreamable</i>, meaning that an <code>operator&gt;&gt;</code>
is defined that takes a <code>std::istream</code> or <code>std::wistream</code> object on the left hand side
and an instance of the result type on the right.
</li>
<li>
<code>Target</code> is <i>CopyConstructible</i> [20.1.3].
</li>
<li>
<code>Target</code> is <i>DefaultConstructible</i>, meaning that it is possible
to <i>default-initialize</i> an object of that type [8.5, 20.1.4].
</li>
</ul>
The character type of the underlying stream is assumed to be <code>char</code> unless
either the <code>Source</code> or the <code>Target</code> requires wide-character
streaming, in which case the underlying stream uses <code>wchar_t</code>.
<code>Source</code> types that require wide-character streaming are <code>wchar_t</code>,
<code>wchar_t *</code>, and <code>std::wstring</code>. <code>Target</code> types that
require wide-character streaming are <code>wchar_t</code> and <code>std::wstring</code>.
<p>
Where a higher degree of control is required over conversions, <code>std::stringstream</code>
and <code>std::wstringstream</code> offer a more appropriate path. Where non-stream-based conversions are
required, <code>lexical_cast</code>
is the wrong tool for the job and is not special-cased for such scenarios.
<p>
<hr>
<h2><a name="bad_lexical_cast"><code>bad_lexical_cast</code></a></h2>
<blockquote>
<pre>class bad_lexical_cast : public std::bad_cast
{
public:
... // <i>same member function interface as</i> std::exception
};
</pre>
</blockquote>Exception used to indicate runtime <a href="#lexical_cast"><code>lexical_cast</code></a>
failure.
<hr>
<!--
The original design of lexical_cast library does not supports throwing/nonthrowing behaviour, default values,
locales... BOOST_LEXICAL_CAST_ASSUME_C_LOCALE is a good optimization, but it breaks down the original design.
-->
<!--
<h2><a name="BOOST_LEXICAL_CAST_ASSUME_C_LOCALE"><code>BOOST_LEXICAL_CAST_ASSUME_C_LOCALE</code></a></h2>
<blockquote><pre>#define BOOST_LEXICAL_CAST_ASSUME_C_LOCALE</blockquote></pre>
or,
<blockquote><pre>g++ -DBOOST_LEXICAL_CAST_ASSUME_C_LOCALE ... (gcc on Linux/Unix)</blockquote></pre>
<blockquote><pre>cl.exe /DBOOST_LEXICAL_CAST_ASSUME_C_LOCALE ... (Visual C++ on Windows)</blockquote></pre>
</pre>
Eliminate an overhead of <code>std::locale</code> if your program runs in the "C" locale. If the option is set but a program runs in other locale, <code>lexical_cast</code> result is unspecified.
<hr>
-->
<h2><a name="faq">Frequently Asked Questions</a></h2>
<table>
<tr>
<td valign="top"><b>Question:</b></td>
<td>Why does <code>lexical_cast&lt;int8_t&gt;("127")</code> throw <code>bad_lexical_cast</code>?</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top"><b>Answer:</b></td>
<td>The type <code>int8_t</code> is a typedef to <code>char</code> or <code>signed char</code>.
Lexical conversion to these types is simply reading a byte from source but since the source has
more than one byte, the exception is thrown.
Please use other integer types such as <code>int</code> or <code>short int</code>. If bounds checking
is important, you can also call <a href="../../libs/numeric/conversion/doc/html/boost_numericconversion/improved_numeric_cast__.html">numeric_cast</a>:
<pre><a href="../../libs/numeric/conversion/doc/html/boost_numericconversion/improved_numeric_cast__.html">numeric_cast</a>&lt;int8_t&gt;(lexical_cast&lt;int&gt;("127"));</pre>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top"><b>Question:</b></td><td>What does <code>lexical_cast&lt;std::string&gt;</code> of an <code>int8_t</code> or <code>uint8_t</code> not do what I expect?</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top"><b>Answer:</b></td><td>As above, note that <code>int8_t</code> and <code>uint8_t</code> are actually chars and are formatted as such. To avoid this, cast to an integer type first:
<pre>lexical_cast&lt;std::string&gt;(static_cast&lt;int&gt;(n));</pre>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top"><b>Question:</b></td>
<td>The implementation always resets the <code>ios_base::skipws</code> flag of an underlying stream object. It breaks my <code>operator&gt;&gt;</code> that works only in presence of this flag. Can you remove code that resets the flag?</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top"><b>Answer:</b></td>
<td>May be in a future version. There is no requirement in <a href="#n1973">[N1973]</a> to reset the flag but remember that <a href="#n1973">[N1973]</a> is not yet accepted by the committee. By the way, it's a great opportunity to make your <code>operator&gt;&gt;</code> conform to the standard. Read a good C++ book, study <code>std::sentry</code> and <a href="../../libs/io/doc/ios_state.html">ios_state_saver</a>.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top"><b>Question:</b></td>
<td>Why <code>std::cout << boost::lexical_cast&lt;unsigned int&gt;("-1");</code> does not throw, but outputs 4294967295?</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top"><b>Answer:</b></td>
<td><code>boost::lexical_cast</code> has the behavior of <code>stringstream</code>, which uses <code>num_get</code> functions of <code>std::locale</code> to convert numbers. If we look at the [22.2.2.1.2] of Programming languages &mdash; C++, we'll see, that <code>num_get</code> uses the rules of <code>scanf</code> for conversions. And in the C99 standard for unsigned input value minus sign is optional, so if a negative number is read, no errors will arise and the result will be the two's complement.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2><a name="references">References</a></h2>
<ul type="square">
<li><a name="n1973"></a>[N1973] Kevlin Henney, Beman Dawes, Lexical Conversion Library Proposal for TR2,
<a href="http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2006/n1973.html">N1973</a>.
<a name="tuning"></a><li> [Tuning] Alexander Nasonov, Fine Tuning for lexical_cast,
<a href="http://accu.org/index.php/journals/1375">Overload #74</a> (<a href="http://www.accu.org/var/uploads/journals/overload74.pdf">PDF</a>),
August 2006.</li>
</ul>
<h2><a name="changes">Changes</a></h2>
<h3>May 2011:</h3>
<ul type="square">
<li>Optimizations for "C" and other locales without number grouping.</li>
<li>Better performance and less memory usage for unsigned char and signed char conversions.</li>
<li>Better performance and less memory usage for conversions to arithmetic types.</li>
<li>Better performance and less memory usage for conversions from arithmetic type to arithmetic type.</li>
<li>Directly construct <code>Target</code> from <code>Source</code> on some conversions (like conversions from string to string, from char array to string, from char to char and others).</li>
</ul>
<h3>August, October 2006:</h3>
<ul type="square">
<li>Better performance for many combinations of <code>Source</code> and <code>Target</code>
types. Refer to <a href="#tuning">[Tuning]</a> for more details.
</li>
</ul>
<h3>June 2005:</h3>
<ul type="square">
<li>Call-by-const reference for the parameters. This requires partial specialization
of class templates, so it doesn't work for MSVC 6, and it uses the original
pass by value there.<br>
</li>
<li>The MSVC 6 support is deprecated, and will be removed in a future Boost
version. </li>
</ul>
<h3>Earlier:</h3>
<ul type="square">
<li>The previous version of <code>lexical_cast</code> used the default stream
precision for reading and writing floating-point numbers. For numerics that
have a corresponding specialization of <code>std::numeric_limits</code>, the
current version now chooses a precision to match. <br>
<li>The previous version of <code>lexical_cast</code> did not support conversion
to or from any wide-character-based types. For compilers with full language
and library support for wide characters, <code>lexical_cast</code> now supports
conversions from <code>wchar_t</code>, <code>wchar_t *</code>, and <code>std::wstring</code>
and to <code>wchar_t</code> and <code>std::wstring</code>. <br>
<li>The previous version of <code>lexical_cast</code> assumed that the conventional
stream extractor operators were sufficient for reading values. However, string
I/O is asymmetric, with the result that spaces play the role of I/O separators
rather than string content. The current version fixes this error for <code>std::string</code>
and, where supported, <code>std::wstring</code>: <code>lexical_cast&lt;std::string&gt;("Hello,
World")</code> succeeds instead of failing with a <code>bad_lexical_cast</code>
exception. <br>
<li>The previous version of <code>lexical_cast</code> allowed unsafe and meaningless
conversions to pointers. The current version now throws a <code>bad_lexical_cast</code>
for conversions to pointers: <code>lexical_cast&lt;char *&gt;("Goodbye, World")</code>
now throws an exception instead of causing undefined behavior.
</ul>
<p>
<hr>
<h2><a name="performance">Performance</a></h2>
This table shows the execution time in milliseconds for 100000 calls of the following string formatters:
<table border="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<tr><td>From->To</td><td> <code>lexical_cast</code> </td><td><code>std::stringstream</code><br>with construction</td><td><code>std::stringstream</code><br>without construction</td><td><code>sscanf</code>/<code>sprintf</code></td></tr>
<tr><td>string->char</td><td bgcolor="#00C000"><1</td><td>91</td><td>7</td><td>10</td></tr>
<tr><td>string->int</td><td bgcolor="#00C000">7</td><td>115</td><td>23</td><td>18</td></tr>
<tr><td>string->unsigned int</td><td bgcolor="#00C000">7</td><td>117</td><td>22</td><td>17</td></tr>
<tr><td>string->bool</td><td bgcolor="#00C000"><1</td><td>104</td><td>19</td><td>10</td></tr>
<tr><td>string->float</td><td>85</td><td>172</td><td>60</td><td bgcolor="#00C000">33</td></tr>
<tr><td>char->string</td><td bgcolor="#00C000">7</td><td>105</td><td>16</td><td>12</td></tr>
<tr><td>int->string</td><td bgcolor="#00C000">15</td><td>131</td><td>21</td><td>17</td></tr>
<tr><td>unsigned int->string</td><td bgcolor="#00C000">14</td><td>125</td><td>21</td><td>17</td></tr>
<tr><td>bool->string</td><td bgcolor="#00C000">7</td><td>122</td><td>24</td><td>12</td></tr>
<tr><td>float->string</td><td>124</td><td>223</td><td>115</td><td bgcolor="#00C000">48</td></tr>
<tr><td>char*->string</td><td bgcolor="#00C000">9</td><td>123</td><td>20</td><td>---</td></tr>
<tr><td>int->int</td><td bgcolor="#00C000"><1</td><td>120</td><td>26</td><td>---</td></tr>
<tr><td>float->float</td><td bgcolor="#00C000"><1</td><td>262</td><td>142</td><td>---</td></tr>
</table>
Fastest results are highlitened with green.
<hr>
<div align="right"><small><i>Copyright &copy; Kevlin Henney, 2000-2005</i></small></div>
<div align="right"><small><i>Copyright &copy; Alexander Nasonov, 2006-2010</i></small></div>
<div align="right"><small><i>Copyright &copy; Antony Polukhin, 2011</i></small></div>
<div align="right"><small><i>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="../../LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)</i></small>
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